Self/Unit Evaluation

Wow! This class if tough if you don't keep up with it! Unfortunately, I lost my father-in-law to pancreatic cancer the first week of the semester. Al Sanchez was only 50 years old and had just received his diagnosis just 5 weeks earlier. Chapter 19 was interesting to study. I'm also quite nervous now, knowing that my husband has a 50% chance of inheriting the gene that caused my father-in-law to have this cancer. Scary. Anyhow, after being out of town for over a week, I found myself scrambling to catch up on school and work. With fewer deadlines than my other classes, I found myself further and further behind in this class. I have scrambled to finish this section. I know it is not my best work, but it showed me what to do better for the next section. I will need to set weekly deadlines for myself in order to finish on time. I was disappointed with my lack of attention to the Cell Model project. I realized too late that I only completed a portion of the assignment! Aaaarrggghh!

Dragon Genetics & Punnetts Square

The Dragon Genetics lab showed me in a fun way how characteristics are carried from parent to child effect physical traits.

The Punnetts Square was a really easy way to see how alleles from parents can create four options of offspring. Very interesting, but easy to relate to human life. A Punnetts square allows you to figure out the chances or the probability that an offspring will have a particular genotype/phenotype.

Genotype - Genes of a individual for a particular trait or traits; often designated by letters, for example, BB or Aa

Phenotype - Visible expression of a genotype- for example, brown eyes or attached earlobes

Allele - Alternative form of a gene; alleles occur at the same locus on homologous chromosomes.

Cross - Sets of alleles being considered for inheritance. Gametes of the reproducing individuals must be determined.

Dominant -Allele that exerts its phenotypic effect in the heterozygote; it masks the expression of the recessive allele. Designated with an uppercase letter.

Recessive - Allele that exerts its phenotypic effect only in the homozygote; its expression is masked by a moninant allele. Designated with a lowercase letter

Microscope Lab

LAB WRITE-UP

The microscope is an invaluable tool, used for the advancement of science. Magnification of images using glass and light has been practiced for centuries, and it has evolved into the high tech microscopes we use today. Without this invention, scientists wouldn’t have been able to discover the cell and wouldn’t have come to know the human body as well as we do today. Microscopes allow us to continue to find cures for diseases and continue to educate ourselves.

The most common microscope used in the educational setting is the light compounding microscope. It is easy to use once you become familiar with its components and what they do.

Stage: The stage is the flat area where specimen slides are placed. Stage clips hold the specimen in place while the microscope is adjusted for optimal viewing.
Focus Knobs: There are two focus knobs on the microscope. The coarse focus knob raises and lowers the stage. Once the specimen is mounted, the hard focus knob is used to raise or lower the stage until the specimen is viewable. The fine focus knob adjusts the internal lenses to fine-tune the view and allow optimal resolution. It is best to adjust these knobs while looking into the microscope.
Iris: The iris is located in the middle of the stage. It controls how much or how little light is used in viewing the specimen.
Oculars: Oculars are the eyepieces of the microscope. They contain glass lenses and need to be adjusted until the image is no longer “double vision”, but a single image. It is best to adjust these while looking through the microscope.
Objectives: Objectives are pieces that can be moved depending on the level of magnification you want to use to view the specimen. They must be moved while looking at the microscope to be sure they don’t come into contact with the slide or stage clips. The higher the number on the objective, the closer you can view the specimen.

The print screen above is a view of cheek cells at 40x magnification.

Compendium Review, Section I - Major Topic II - Genetics

Chapter 18 – Patterns of Chromosome Inheritance
18.1 Chromosomes and the Cell Cycle
Chromosomes occur in pairs in body cells.
A karyotype is a visual display of a person’s chrmosomes.
A normal human karyotype shows 22 homologous pairs of autosomes and one pair of sex chromosomes.
Normal sex chromosomes in males: XY
Nomal sex chromosomes in felmales: XX
The cell cycle occurs continuously and has four stages: G1, S, G2, and M
In G1, a cell doubles organelles and accumulates materials for DNA synthesis.
In S, DNA replication occurs
In G2, a cell synthesizes proteins needed for cell division
Apoptosis also occurs during the cell cycle.

18.2 Mitosis
Mitosis is duplication division that assures that all body cells have the diploid number and the same kinds of chromosomes as the cell that divides. The phases of mitosis are prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase.
o Prophase: Chromosomes attach to spindle fibers.
o Metaphase: Chromosomes align at the equator
o Anaphase: Chromatids separate, becoming chromosomes that move toward the poles
o Telophase: Nuclear envelopes form around chromosomes; cytokinesis begins. Cytokinesis is the division of cytoplasm and organelles following mitosis. The proper workings of the cell cycle and mitosis are critical to growth and tissue repair.

18.3 Meiosis
Meiosis involves two cell division: meosis I and meiosis II.
Meiosis I – Homologous chromosomes pair and then separate
Meiosis II – Sister chromatids separate, resulting in four cells with the haploid number of chrmosomes that move into daughter nuclei.

18.4 Comparison of Meiosis and Mitosis
In prophase I, homologous chromosomes pair; there is no pairing in mitosis.
In metaphase I, homologous duplicated chromosomes align at equator.
In anaphase I, homologous chrmosomes separate.

Spermatogenesis and Oogenesis
o Spermatogensis In males, produces four viable sperm.
o Oogenesis In females, produces one egg and two or three polar bodies. Oogenesis goes to completion if the sperm fertilizes the developing egg.

18.5 Chromosome Inheritance
Meiosis is a part of gametogenesis and contributes to genetic diversity
Changes in Chromosome Number
Non disjunction changes the chromosome number in gametes, resulting in trisomy or monosomy.
Autosomal symddromes include trisomy and Down syndrome.

Changes in Sex Chromosome Number
Nondisjunction during oogenesis or spermatogenesis can result in gametes that have too few or too many X or Y chrmosomes.
Syndromes include Turner, Klinefelter, poly-X, and Jacobs.

Changes in Chromosome Structure
Chromosomal mutations can produce chromosomes with deleted, duplicated, inverted, or translocated segments.
These resul.t in various syndromes such as Williams and cri du chat and Alagille and certain cancers.

Chapter 21 – DNA Biology and Technology

21.1 DNA and RNA Structure and Function
DNA is the genetic material found in the chromosomes. It replicates, stores information, and mutates for genetic variability.

Structure of DNA
Double helix composed of two polynucleotide strands. Each nucleotide is composed of a doxyribose sugar, a phosphate, and a nitrogen-containing base (A, T, C, G).
The base A is bonded to T, and G is bonded to C.

Replication of DNA
DNA strands unzip, and a new complementary strand forms opposite each old strand, resulting in two identical DNA molecules.

The Structure and Function of RNA
RNA is a single-stranded nucleic acid in which the base U (uracil) occurs instead of T (thymine).
The three forms of RNA are rRNA, mRNA, and tRNA

21.2 Gene Expression
Gene expression leads to the formation of a product, usually a protein. Proteins differ by the sequence of their amino acids. Gene expression requires transcription and translation.
Transcription – occurs in the nucleus. The DNA triplet code is passed to an mRNA that contains codons. Introns are removed from mRNA during mRNA processing.
Translation – occurs in the cytoplasm at the ribosomes. tRNA molecules bind to their amino acids, and then their anticodons pair with mRNA codons.

The Regulation of Gene Expression
Regulation of gene expression occurs at four levels in a human cell:
Transcription Control – In the nucleus; the degree to which a gene is transcribed into mRNA determines the amount of gene product.
Posttranscriptional Control – In the nucleus; involves mRNA processing and how fast mRNA leaves the nucleus.
Translational Control – In the cytoplasm; affects when translation begins and how long it continues.
Posttranslational Control – In the cytoplasm; occurs after protein synthesis.

21.3 Genomics
A Person’s Genome Can be Modified
Gene therapies can treat various medical conditions.
The human genome has now been sequenced via the 13-year-long Human Genome Project.
Genomes of other organisms have also been sequenced.
The Personal Genome Project is underway, which would allow individuals to have their own personal genome sequenced.

Functional and Comparative Genomics
Functional genomics is the study of how the 25,000 genes in a human genome function
Comparative genomics is a way to determine how species have evolved and how genes and noncoding regions of the genome function.

Proteomics and Bioinformatics are New Endeavors
Proteomics is the study of the structure, function, and interaction of cellular proteins. Bioinformatics is the application of computer technologies to the study of the genome.

21.4 DNA Technology
Recombinant DNA contains DNA from two different sources. The foreign gene and vector DNA are cut by the same restriction enzyme and then the foreign gene is sealed into vector


Chapter 19 – Cancer

19.1 Cancer Cells
Certain characteristics are common to cancer cells. Cancer cells:
Are not normal cells and do not contribute to normal body function.
Do not undergo apoptosis – they enter the cell cycle an unlimited number of times.
Form tumors and do not need growth factors to signal them to divide.
Gradually become abnormal – carcinogenesis is comprised of initiation, promotion, and progression.
Undergo angiogenesis (the growth of blood vessels to support them) and can spread throughout the body (metastasis)
Cancer is a Genetic Disease
Cells become increasingly abnormal due to mutation in proto-oncogenes and tumor-suppressor genes.

In normal cells: the cell cycle functions normally.
Proto-oncogenes promote cell cycle activity and restrain apoptosis. Proto-oncogenes can mutate into oncogenes
Tumor-suppressor genes restrain the cell cycle and promote apoptosis.


In cancer cells: the cell cycle is accelerated and occurs repeatedly.
· Oncogenes cause an unrestrained cell cycle and prevent apoptosis.
· Mutated tumor-suppressor genes cause an unrestrained cell cycle and prevent apoptosis.

19.2 Causes and Prevention of Cancer
Development of cancer is determined by a person’s genetic profile, plus exposure to environmental carcinogens.
Cancers that run in families are most likely due to the inheritance of mutated genes (like breast cancer).
Certain environmental factors are carcinogens (like UV, tobacco, radiation).
Industrial chemicals (like pesticides and herbicides) are carcinogenic.
Certain viruses (like hepatitis B and C and HPV) cause specific cancers.

19.3 Diagnosis of Cancer
The earlier a cancer is diagnosed, the more likely it can be effectively treated. Tests for cancer include:
Pap test for cervical cancer
Mammogram for breast cancer
Tumor marker test – blood tests that detect tumor antigens/antibodies
Tests for genetic mutations of oncogenes and tumor-suppressor genes
Biopsy and imaging – used to confirm the diagnosis of cancer



19.4 Treatment of Cancer
Surgery, radiation and chemotherapy are traditional methods of treating cancer. Other methods include:
Chemotherapy involving bone marrow transplants
Immunotherapy
P53 gene therapy
Other therapies, such as inhibitory drugs for angiogenesis and metastasis, which are being investigated.


Chapter 20 – Patterns of Genetic Inheritance

20.1 Genotype and Phenotype
Genotype refers to the alleles of the individual, and phenotype refers to the physical characteristics associated with the alleles
Homozygous dominant individuals have the dominant phenotype
Homozygous recessive individuals have the recessive phenotype
Heterozygous individuals have the dominant phenotype

Compendium Review, Section 1, Major Topic I

Table of Contents

Chapter 1 – Exploring Life and Science

1.1 The Characteristics of Life
1.2 Humans Are Related to Other Animals

Chapter 2 – Chemistry of Life

2.1 From Atoms to Molecules
2.2 Water and Living Things
2.3 Molecules of Life
2.4 Carbohydrates
2.5 Lipids
2.6 Proteins
2.7 Nucleic Acids

Chapter 3 – Cell Structure and Function

3.1 What Is a Cell?
3.2 How Cells Are Organized
3.3 The Plasma Membrane and How Substances Cross It
3.4 The Nucleus and the Production of Proteins
3.5 The Cytoskeleton and Cell Movement
3.6 Mitochondria and Cellular Metabolism

Chapter 4 – Organization and Regulation of Body Systems

4.1 Types of Tissues
4.2 Connective Tissue Connects and Supports
4.3 Muscular Tissue Moves the Body
4.4 Nervous Tissue Communicates
4.5 Epithelial Tissue Protects
4.6 Cell Junctions
4.7 Integumentary System
4.8 Organ Systems
4.9 Homeostatis


Major Topic I - Cells

Chapter 1 – Exploring Life and Science
1.1 The Characteristics of Life
Living things share many characteristics. Living things, otherwise known as organisms, have levels of organization. These levels are ordered from smallest to largest:
Ÿ Atoms
Ÿ Molecules
Ÿ Cells
Ÿ Tissues
Ÿ Organs
Ÿ Organ Systems
Ÿ Organisms
Ÿ Populations
Ÿ Community
Ÿ Ecosystem
Ÿ Biosphere
Organisms also share other characteristics like taking material/energy from the environment, reproduction, growing and developing, homeostasis, response to stimuli and they all have a history of evolution and have adapted to a certain way of life.

1.2 Humans Are Related to Other Animals
Organisms are classified into groups. Humans are mammals, a type of vertebrate in the domain Eukarya. Humans are different from other mammals because they have highly developed brains, completely upright stances, creative languages, and an ability to use a wide variety of tools. We have a heritage and a wide variety of skills/values/beliefs/information that is passed down from each generation. Unlike other mammals, Humans threaten their own environment.


Chapter 2 – Chemistry of Life

2.1 From Atoms to Molecules
Matter is made up of elements, and each element consists of just one kind of atom. An atom’s weight is based on the number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus. An atom’s chemical properties depend on the number of electrons in the outer shell. Atoms react by forming ionic bonds or covalent bonds.

2.3 Molecules of Life
Carbohydrates, lipids, proteins and nucleic acids are macromolecules with specific functions in cells.

2.4 Carbohydrates
Ÿ Glucose is a 6-carbon sugar utilized by cells for quick energy. Complex carbohydrates are polysaccharides. Starch, glycogen, and cellulose are polysaccharides containing many glucose units.
Ÿ Plants store glucose as starch
Ÿ Animals store glucose as glycogen
Ÿ Cellulose forms plant cell walls and is fiber

2.5 Lipids
Fats and oils are used for long-term energy storage. They contain glycerol and three fatty acids. Fatty acids can be saturated or unsaturated. In food, unsaturated fat is healthy for humans, but saturated fat should be eaten in moderation. Plasma membranes contain phospholipids. Testosterone and estrogen are steroids.

2.6 Proteins
Some proteins are structural, like keratin and collagen. Others are hormones or enzymes that speed up chemical reactions. Other proteins provide cell movement, enable muscle contraction or transport molecules in blood. Proteins are macromolecules with amino acid subunits.

2.7 Nucleic Acids
Nucleic acids are macromolecules composed of nucleotides. Examples are DNA and RNA. They are responsible for the storage of genetic information.

Chapter 3 – Cell Structure and Function

3.1 What Is a Cell?
Cells are the basic units of life. The reproduce from other cells, and are extremely small. Most need to be viewed while looking at them through a microscope.

3.2 How Cells Are Organized
The human cell is surrounded by a plasma membrane and has a central nucleus. Between the plasma membrane and the nucleus is the cytoplasm, which contains various organelles. Organelles in the cytoplasm have specific functions. See the Model of a Cell project for pictures of the various components.

3.3 The Plasma Membrane and How Substances Cross It
The plasma membrane is a bilayer that selectively regulates the passage of molecules and ions into and out of the cell. It also contains embedded proteins, which allow certain substances to cross the plasma membrane. Passage of molecules into or out of cells can be passive or active. Passive mechanisms are diffusion and facilitated transport. Active mechanisms are active transport and endocytosis and exocytosis.

3.4 The Nucleus and the Production of Proteins
The nucleus is the brain of the cell. The houses DNA and produces RNA in ribosomes. The endomembrane system contains the nuclear envelope, endoplasmic reticulum, Golto apparatus, lysosomes and vesticles.

3.5 The Cytoskeleton and Cell Movement
The cytoskeleton consists of microtubules, actin filaments, and intermediate filaments that give cells their shape and allows organelles to move about the cell. Cilia and flagella, which contain mircrotubules, allow the cell to move.

3.6 Mitochondria and Cellular Metabolism
During cellular respiration, mitochondria convert the energy of glucose into the energy of ATP molecules.
A metabolic pathway is a series of reactions, each of which has its own enzyme. Enzymes speed reactions by forming an enzyme-substrate complex. Cellular respiration is the enzymatic breakdown of glucose to carbon dioxide and water.

If oxygen is not available in cells, the electron transport chain is inoperative, and fermentation occurs. Fermentation produces very little ATP. Lactate buildup puts the individual in oxygen deficit. Fermentation can create a burst of energy, but it doesn’t last long, and it causes a build-up of lactate. If fermentation continues for a length of time, death follows.

Chapter 4 – Organization and Regulation of Body Systems

4.1 Types of Tissues
The body contains four types of tissue. Connective, Muscular, Nervous and Epithelial


4.2 Connective Tissue Connects and Supports
o Fibrous connective tissue; matrix of tissue that protects and supports organs. Ligaments and tendons are also in this category
o Supportive connective tissue; cartilage
o Compact bone; shafts of long bone
o Spongy bone; ends of long bone
o Blood
o Lymph


4.3 Muscular Tissue Moves the Body
There are three types of muscular tissue: skeletal, smooth and cardiac
Skeletal and cardiac muscles are striated.
Cardiac and smooth muscle are involuntary
Skeletal muscle is found in internal organs
Cardiac muscle makes up the heart

4.4 Nervous Tissue Communicates
Nervous tissue is made up of neurons and several types of neuroglia.
Each neuron has dendrites, a cell body, and an axon. Axons conduct nerve impulses.

4.5 Epithelial Tissue Protects
Epithelial tissue covers the body and lines its cavities.
Types of simple epithelia are squamous, cuboidal, and columnar.
Certain of these tissues may have cilia or microvilli.
Stratified epithelia have many layers of cells, with only the bottom layer touching the basement membrane.
Glandular epithelia secretes a product either into ducts or into the blood.

4.6 Cell Junctions
Three types of junctions are common between epithelial cells:
Tight junctions are zipperlike fastenings between cells.
Adhesion junctions allow cells to stretch and bend.
Gap junctions allow small molecules and signal to pass between cells.

4.7 Integumentary System
Skin and its accessory organs comprise the integumentary system. Skin has two regions:
The epidermis contains stem cells, which produce new epithelial cells.
The dermis contains glands and hair follicles, nerve endings, blood vessels, and sensory receptors.

4.8 Organ Systems
Organs are categorized into six groups:
Transport
Maintenance
Control
Integumentary
Motor
Reproduction

4.9 HomeostatisHomeostasis is the relative constancy of the internal environment, which is tissue fluid and blood. All organ systems contribute to homeostasis.

Model of a Cell

Model of a Cell

Supplies: Styrofoam Ball and Play-Doh

This project really helped me learn about the cell and it's structures and their functions. Great exercise!